Maximilian's regency (1483-1493)

The death of Duchess Mary in 1482 and the Treaty of Arras that followed at the end of the year reset the situation somewhat across the Burgundian territories. Louis XI of France had reclaimed Picardy, Artois and both the Duchy and County of Burgundy, which the treaty confirmed. Duke Maximilian still held on to the majority of the Low Countries, including Flanders, Brabant, Holland and Luxembourg, though his authority was unstable at best. His son Philip was still in the custody of the city of Bruges, so that the Flemish held a vital bargaining chip. Burgundian influence had still yet to be re-asserted in the states of Liège, Utrecht and Guelders. Any loyalty to a Burgundian regime had been reserved tentatively for Mary, and so was now transferred to the young Philip - Maximilian was still seen as a foreign ruler, a situation not helped by his introduction of unruly German mercenaries into the Low Countries. And as always, his power was severely curtailed by his financial situation.

1483-1485

The extended truce with France allowed Maximilian to focus on bringing his unruly subjects to heel. The first problem to be addressed was the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, where the notorious William de La Marck had seized power and subsequently plunged the region into civil war. In January 1483 La Marck fought the army of Philip of Cleves at Hollogne where he was defeated and his brother Adolph captured, the survivors fleeing back to the city of Liège. La Marck continued his ravages, using Huy as his base, though he was now without any support from France. The people of Liège meanwhile desired peace, and accepted Burgundian proposals to make John of Hoorne their new bishop.

Utrecht was similarly brought under control. Here bishop David of Burgundy had been forced out two years previously, but now Maximilian was able to send more troops to help re-instate him, and his rival Engelbert of Cleves was driven out. However less than a month later bishop David was surprised in the night and captured by the anti-Burgundian ‘hook’ faction. In June Maximilian besieged the city of Utrecht with an army of 12,000 men, and after two months secured its surrender. David of Burgundy was once again restored to power, and Maximilian was recognised as ‘lay advocate’, a title which his Burgundian predecessors had held when they exercised control over the bishopric.

The biggest thorn in the archduke’s side proved to be the Flemish, who had already shut him out of their negotiations with France which had led to the Treaty of Arras. In June 1483 they formed their own regency council for the young Philip, who remained in their custody. Three months later Maximilian publicly proclaimed the dismissal of Philip’s councillors, leading to tense negotiations between the two parties. These broke down into near civil war, as Flanders applied economic sanctions on the other states of the Netherlands – this only served to drive the other states closer to Maximilian. Raids in turn were sent into Flanders, the proceeds of which were sold at auction in Antwerp.

On 30 August 1483 Louis XI died, an event which no doubt came as welcome news to Maximilian. Louis was succeeded as king of France by his thirteen-year-old son, who reigned as Charles VIII. At this stage he was still in his minority, so France was ruled by its own regent - Charles’ elder sister, the formidable Anne de Beaujeu. If Maximilian hoped that the death of his great rival would end French ambitions in the Low Countries, he found this would be some time in coming. In October 1484 France formed an official military alliance with Flanders, and demanded that Maximilian withdraw his troops from the county. The Flemish had previously been wary of French dominance, but it seems now they were happy to ally themselves with their powerful neighbour if it meant they could escape Burgundian rule. The other states of the Low Countries were differently inclined however, as they all swore allegiance to Maximilian in November.

Things came to a head in January 1485, when Maximilian defeated the Flemish rebels beneath the walls of Ghent. However he was subsequently forced to withdraw due to a mutiny in his own army, and French troops entered the city - the French apparently behaved badly though and were soon made to leave. Ultimately, full scale war with either the Flemish or the French seemed to have been avoided, and that summer members of the pro-French faction in Ghent were either driven out or executed. Maximilian entered the city of Bruges, and an awkward peace was concluded on 22 July. The Flemish recognised Maximilian as guardian of Philip, who was at last returned to his father – he was then put in the care of the dowager duchess Margaret of York (Duchess Mary’s step-mother, Charles the Bold’s widow and sister of the Yorkist kings of England). Ghent was dealt with more harshly than the rest of Flanders under this peace, and came close to being destroyed.

By this point the problem of William de La Marck had been dealt with somewhat brutally. The previous year the La Marck family had agreed to peace with the city of Liège and forfeited their claim to the bishopric, and things had become quiet. However on 18 June the ‘Wild Boar of the Ardennes’ himself was captured by Maximilian’s agents and promptly executed. Though this rid him of a particularly troublesome individual, it did not resolve the Liège issue – the civil war re-ignited as William’s brothers Everard and Robert strived to overthrow the Burgundian-appointed bishop John of Hoorne. 

November 1485 saw Maximilian departing for Germany, as the Imperial election loomed – he was expected to be elected as King of the Romans, to succeed his father as emperor. Whilst Frederick had been chosen mainly for his insignificance and lack of power, the electors now desired a stronger figurehead, which they saw in his son. Philip of Cleves was appointed military guardian of the Netherlands, and the governing council left behind preserved the peace with France.

Maximilian

1486-1488

On 16 February 1486 Maximilian was elected King of the Romans, confirming him as heir to the Imperial throne which his father still occupied. Following the election he returned to the Low Countries, and that spring re-opened hostilities with France. Crossing the border into Artois with a large army of mostly German and Swiss mercenaries, he was able to take a number of places including Lens and Thérouanne, but his advance stalled at Saint-Quentin. With familiar financial difficulties arising and his troops beginning to desert for want of pay, he was eventually forced to withdraw.

He was only able to hold onto his modest conquests for a year. In the spring and summer of 1487 they were all retaken by the French under the leadership of Philippe de Crèvecœur, who had been appointed Marshal of France and tasked with pursuing the war in the Low Countries. The setbacks culminated in the battle of Béthune in August, where a Burgundian army was caught in an ambush by the French and utterly defeated - both Charles of Egmont (the heir to the Duchy of Guelders) and Engelbert of Nassau were captured.

At the same time as Maximilian’s military expeditions were ending in failure, trouble was brewing for him in Flanders yet again. Resenting both the oppression of his armies and the rising taxes required to fund them, the Flemish were driven closer still to France economically when all English trade was redirected to Brabant and Holland. By November the city of Ghent was in open rebellion, with plans to summon the States General, inviting Hainault and Brabant to join consultations. Maximilian hoped to block this move by summoning the States General himself, to meet in Bruges the following February.

Things were tense when Maximilian arrived in Bruges in early 1488 with a small escort. Sensing the tension and fearing for his safety, he made the unfortunate decision of trying to bring several thousand of his German mercenaries into the city, the result being a sudden armed uprising of panicked citizens. The city gates were shut, Maximilian’s residence was stormed and several of his entourage executed. Before long the King of the Romans found himself a prisoner of his own people, though they were perhaps as surprised at this turn of events as he was - the uprising wasn’t premeditated, and they weren’t quite sure what to do next. 

When news of the situation reached Ghent, the rebels seized the opportunity and took a number of Maximilian’s courtiers hostage. The Flemish levies were then sent forth from both Ghent and Bruges, and they were able to take control of several other towns. In May the States General met in Ghent, where they adopted ‘The Union, Alliance and Confederation’, which abolished Maximilian’s regency in Flanders.

The extraordinary situation of Maximilian’s captivity finally caused his father to bestir himself, and by April the emperor was marching towards Flanders with an army of 20,000 men. His approach encouraged the rebels to negotiate, and Maximilian was set free on condition that he withdrew his armies from Flanders, renounced his guardianship of Philip and recognised ‘The Union’, apparently ‘for the sake of peace and good government, and the maintenance of the treaty of Arras’. As humiliating as the terms were, he swore an oath to keep them in what became the Peace of Bruges. However as soon as he was free he joined his father’s army and declared the agreement invalid, claiming his feudal oath to the emperor took precedence over anything he had been forced to agree to whilst in captivity. The imperial army continued its march into Flanders and besieged Ghent.

Upon Maximilian’s release his place as hostage in Bruges had been taken by Philip of Cleves, who had served him for the previous ten years. However this relationship came to an end when Maximilian went against his oath – Cleves considered this such a dishonourable act that he ended up joining the rebels, justifying this switch of allegiance as being ‘in defence of his liege lord’ (the young Duke Philip, who was actually safely out of reach at Mechelen).

As the year progressed it appeared that ‘The Union’ was winning. Backed by a mix of Burgundian aristocrats and lawyers, the Peace of Bruges was publicly proclaimed in September. Philip of Cleves entered Brussels, and won the support of much of southern Brabant. Henry VII of England even received their envoys, despite his existing alliance with Maximilian. It was also cautiously supported by the French government, and troops were sent into Flanders, though the military might of France was reserved for the situation unfolding in Brittany at the time. 

The siege of Ghent had proved fruitless and been abandoned in the summer, and in October the emperor departed for Germany – he had more pressing matters to attend to in the east, namely a war against the Kingdom of Hungary (the Hungarians had by then occupied much of the Hapsburg Austrian territories). By the end of the year Maximilian had followed him. Before leaving he appointed his cousin Albert the Bold, Duke of Saxony as his representative in the Low Countries. Recognised for his great ability as a military commander and organiser, Albert promised “to serve his master that men should write of it for one thousand years”.

1489-1493

One of Albert of Saxony’s first tasks in 1489 was to retake Rotterdam, which had been seized by the anti-Burgundian ‘hook’ faction the previous November. With an army of 8,500 men under the leadership of the young Frans van Brederode, the hooks attempted to take several other towns, and plundered the area around Rotterdam. By February they had been put to siege from both land and water by John, Count of Egmont.

The Flemish rebels also attempted to take territory for themselves, and in May they besieged the town of Dixmude, which appealed to the English garrison of nearby Calais for assistance as a French army under Philippe de Crèvecœur himself approached. On 13 June the siege was lifted when an Anglo-German force assaulted the Flemish camp and soundly defeated the rebels. De Crèvecœur’s army never made it to Dixmude, besieging Nieuport instead.

By this point the relationship between France and Flanders was becoming increasingly strained, with de Crèvecœur demanding Ghent submit to France in return for continuing aid in their struggle. Nothing came of these demands, and with Maximilian having signed a new alliance with England in February, the French were deterred from committing themselves any further to the conflict. Eventually Charles VIII decided to make peace, and the Treaty of Frankfurt was signed in July. In return for Maximilian promising not to get involved in the affair of the Breton succession, Charles agreed to stay out of Flanders. He also offered to use his influence on the Flemings, and recognised Maximilian as guardian and lawful regent of Duke Philip.

Following the Treaty of Frankfurt, Albert of Saxony was able to restore order in southern Brabant, the rebel towns submitting to Maximilian’s authority in August. The siege of Rotterdam also ended in the summer – on two separate occasions convoys of ships on attempted supply runs were intercepted and destroyed, and Frans van Brederode was eventually forced to abandon the town and retreat to Sluys. Here Philip of Cleves still held out, and allying with the leaders of the hooks he used the port as a base for piracy.

Albert’s campaign against the hooks continued into 1490, as he besieged Montfort. Frans van Brederode met his end at the Battle of Brouwershaven on 23 July – whilst raiding along the coast of Zeeland, his ships were attacked by a larger fleet led by John of Egmont. During the battle several of his ships ran aground and their occupants were forced to disembark and fight on the shore, where they were mostly killed. Brederode was captured and soon died of his wounds. Shortly afterwards the hooks besieged at Montfort surrendered.

Despite the Treaty of Frankfurt, Maximilian’s peace with France wasn’t to last long due to the issue of the Breton succession. Following his defeat in the so-called ‘Mad War’ of 1485-1488, the Duke of Brittany had been forced to sign a treaty that only allowed his daughter to marry with the approval of the French crown. However before his death he had wanted her to marry Maximilian, which went against the treaty and French interests. Nevertheless on 19 December 1490 Maximilian married Anne of Brittany by proxy. He had previously entered an agreement with the kings of England and Spain that all three would declare war on France should Charles VII invade Brittany. This didn’t work out – Charles pacified Ferdinand of Spain with territorial restorations and Henry VII of England with hard cash, and thus when he entered Brittany in 1491 Maximilian was powerless to stop him. Maximilian’s had only been a proxy marriage, an arrangement Anne was soon persuaded to discard – Charles VIII married her in person on December 6th, formally bringing the Duchy of Brittany into the French realm. This was a double insult as Charles had been betrothed to Maximilian’s daughter Margaret, as set out by the Treaty of Arras in 1482. Renewed conflict with France was thus inevitable. 

Charles VIII

However Maximilian still had uprisings to quell before he could move against France. Though Bruges had submitted the previous year, by May 1491 Ghent was again in open revolt due to renewed French intervention. A fresh uprising in Holland occurred the same year, the so-called ‘bread and cheese’ revolt. In effect a violent protest against an oppressive tax system, it was latched onto by the not-quite-finished hook party and they were able to capture several towns. Another problem raising its head again was that of Guelders – Charles of Egmont, captured by the French in 1487, was ransomed and returned to the duchy in February 1492, where they recognised him as their hereditary ruler and renounced Maximilian’s authority. This was clearly part of the French plan to raise up enemies of Maximilian across the Low Countries.

Under the leadership of Albert of Saxony, most of these problems were dealt with in 1492. The ‘bread and cheese’ revolt boasted a few early successes, ambushing and driving back a force sent to dislodge them from Alkmaar. They then captured Haarlem and went on to besiege Leiden with 3,000 men, but here met their downfall. Confronted by John of Egmont, they were routed and forced back to Haarlem. Egmont was then joined by Albert of Saxony with a large force of German infantry, and both the rebels and the towns who had supported them submitted. Albert of Saxony went on to besiege Sluys that summer, where Philip of Cleves still held out - in this endeavour he was assisted by an English fleet under Sir Edward Poynings. Philip of Cleves finally surrendered on 12 October – his father having recently died, he saw the need to preserve his inheritance as more important than his support for a rebellion that was by then floundering. The city of Ghent had already signed the humbling Peace of Cadzand in July after lengthy negotiations, so that by the end of the year only Guelders still defied Maximilian’s rule.

Maximilian was now ready to take action against France. The treaty of Arras had stipulated that his daughter Margaret’s dowry should be returned if her marriage to Charles VIII never took place. As the French king had now spurned her and married Anne of Brittany, he had lost any right to the counties of Artois, Charolais and the Franche-Comté. No moves were made to return these regions (nor Margaret herself, who remained in effect a French hostage), and so Maximilian prepared to take them back by force. Border raids against the French began again both in the north and the south. Then on 5 November a Burgundian force led by Jean de Jaucourt and Louis de Vaudrey moved against the strategically important town of Arras, and with the help of its disaffected citizens it was quickly taken. Soon St Omer and other towns throughout Artois had been captured by the Burgundians.

In mid-winter Maximilian made his move in the south, invading the Franche-Comté with an army of 8,000 Germans. The conquest went quickly, as most towns willingly opened their gates to him. Across the county many other places simultaneously rose up and evicted their French garrisons. Only at Poligny and Dole did such uprisings not succeed, and at Gray the French defended their town vigorously and withstood the invaders. 

Jean de Baudricourt was the French governor of Burgundy, and on the approach of Maximilian’s army he had withdrawn from Salins to Poligny, where he planned to gather his scattered forces. Though he left a garrison in the nearby castle of Bracon to threaten Salins, the town nevertheless welcomed a Burgundian company led by Philippe de Loyte. Having managed to raise a force of more than 7,000 men, Baudricourt planned to return and retake Salins before it was reinforced further – a company of Germans under the veteran captain Friedrich Kappler was on its way. As the French approached they were met by the Burgundians and Germans on 17 January near Dournon. The latter having taken up a defensive position either side of the road, the French cavalry were shot to pieces attempting to attack through the narrow way. Baudricourt himself was injured and forced to sound the retreat. 

There are conflicting accounts of the exact details of the Battle of Dournon. Apparently the French returned the next day, when they were outflanked and soundly beaten, before being pursued back to Poligny. Either Friedrich Kappler led the defence on the first day, and was reinforced by Philippe de Loyte and the garrison of Salins on the next, or de Loyte was there first and it was Kappler’s timely arrived that routed the French. Either way it was a victory for the Burgundians. Upon returning to Salins, de Loyte and Kappler went to besiege the castle of Bracon, which had been greatly discomforting the city. The siege looked to drag on, until the castle’s commander Henri de Maillot was killed by a lucky arquebus shot whilst riding outside the gates, and the French were quickly persuaded to surrender.

News of the victory at Dournon spread across the Franche-Comté, and it was then that the last French-held towns rose up against their occupiers. Once such town was Dole, which had been living in poverty since its cruel sack in 1479. In 1493 it finally evicted its French garrison, and the arms of Burgundy at last were flown above the county’s capital.

Upon learning how things were progressing in the Franche-Comté, Charles VIII asked for peace. By now he had more ambitious goals, the first of which was his planned invasion of Italy, and he understandably wanted his borders quiet before he undertook this great task. Having already brought Brittany into the French realm and made comfortable treaties with both England and Spain, he was seemingly prepared to give up territory to Maximilian in exchange for peace. Thus the Treaty of Senlis was signed on 23 May 1493. This saw Margaret’s dowry returned, that is the counties of Artois, Burgundy and Charolais – as per the 1482 Treaty of Arras, these territories passed to her brother Philip. The Duchy of Burgundy itself remained French. And Margaret herself was finally returned to her father on 12 June – for the rest of her life she would nurse a resentment towards the French for their ill treatment of her.

Maximilian still only ruled the Burgundian territories as regent for Duke Philip. On 19 August of that year Frederick III died, and so Maximilian inherited the title of emperor himself, though he was never actually crowned by the Pope. The next year he formally bestowed the government of the Burgundian territories on Philip, who by then was sixteen years old. Of course it was through Philip that the Hapsburg dynasty’s power reached new heights – he married Joanna of Castile in 1506, but only enjoyed the title King of Castile for a few months before he died aged 28. It was the son of this marriage, Charles, who eventually inherited the lot and became Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Holy Roman Emperor and king of a newly unified Spain.